Pragmatics is the study of how context influences the meanings and use of linguistic expressions. It differs from other areas of linguistic study, such as semantics (the rules that determine literal linguistic meaning), syntax (how words are combined to form sentences with specific meaning) and semiotics (the study of signs and symbols).

Pragmatism is not a fixed philosophy; its ideas can be applied in different ways by different philosophers. One of the most important pragmatists was John Dewey, who promoted practical and social reforms through his ideas about education. Other pragmatists include Chauncey Wright, Charles Sanders Peirce and William James.

For the pragmatist, a theory or view is true only insofar as it produces useful results. For example, the idea that the stars form loops in the sky may not be accurate on a scientific level, but it works as a tool for navigation and is therefore useful to sailors. In this way, the pragmatic approach to philosophical inquiry is more like a heuristic than a scientific method.

One of the main criticisms of pragmatism is that it fails to provide an objective basis for truth. It is easy to see how this view could be flawed: just because a hypothesis produces acceptable results doesn’t mean that it is necessarily true or valid. For example, telling a child that there are invisible gremlins living in electrical outlets who will bite if they are touched is probably not a very valid line of reasoning.

Other criticisms of pragmatism revolve around its rejection of metaphysical notions. For example, it is difficult to support the idea that there are transcendent truths when Dewey rejected the ideas of Hegel and Russell and emphasized experience over reason. Some pragmatists, such as James, also disagreed with the correspondence theory of truth.

A major part of pragmatics is the study of how a person’s past experiences and current situation influence their choice of responses. It is a very wide field, covering topics such as communication style and interactional norms in both home and target cultures.

Lessons on pragmatics in a classroom often involve examining the different types of requests and asking learners how they would make a request in a particular scenario. The goal of such lessons is to help students acquire pragmatic competence in both their native language and the target language.

Another aspect of pragmatics is studying how a speaker manages the flow of reference in conversation. For example, in a conversation about someone who is absent, speakers can refer to previous encounters by name without explicitly saying that person’s name.

The classroom is a great place to introduce concepts of pragmatics, as it provides an environment where learners can experiment with different ways to communicate in situations that are familiar or unfamiliar. For example, in the Forum article “Pragmatic Activities for the Speaking Classroom,” Joseph Siegel explains how to teach pragmatics through an activity that involves a series of scenarios in which students decide how they would make a request.